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A Brief History of Artsakh
The first records of the region, key events, preconditions and causes of the conflict with Azerbaijan
Artsakh is a picturesque place with a mild climate. There are mountain forests, impregnable cliffs and valleys reminiscent of Northern Mesopotamia.
Artsakh is located in the northeast of the Armenian highlands, occupying also the mountains of the Lesser Caucasus. The geographical boundaries of historical Artsakh extend to the east along the Kura River, to the south — along the Araks River, to the west the territory is enveloped by the mountains of Greater Syunik.
Artsakh is located in the northeast of the Armenian highlands, occupying also the mountains of the Lesser Caucasus. The geographical boundaries of historical Artsakh extend to the east along the Kura River, to the south — along the Araks River, to the west the territory is enveloped by the mountains of Greater Syunik.
Map of Artsakh and Syunik with historical and modern borders
The First Millennia
In historical sources Artsakh is first mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions of the Urartian kingdom of the 8th century B. C. as Urtekhe-Urtekhini. The traditional Armenian name Artsakh comes from here. The territory is mentioned in the works of ancient authors as Orhistena.
In ancient times already, Artsakh was one of the important centers of statehood. Thus, the rock inscription of Argishti I, king of the Urartian Kingdom, found in the Armenian province of Kotayk, mentions the city of Zar. The inscription dates back to the 8th century. Geographically, Zar coincides with the settlement of Tsar in Artsakh, the dwelling place of local princes.
In ancient times already, Artsakh was one of the important centers of statehood. Thus, the rock inscription of Argishti I, king of the Urartian Kingdom, found in the Armenian province of Kotayk, mentions the city of Zar. The inscription dates back to the 8th century. Geographically, Zar coincides with the settlement of Tsar in Artsakh, the dwelling place of local princes.
Urartu is an ancient state located on the territory of the Armenian highlands. Here is an image of Urartian cuneiform writing.
In the first century B. C. King Tigran the Great of Great Armenia built the city of Tigranakert. This fact confirms the important status of Artsakh in the system of Armenian statehood in the ancient period as well.
In 387, after the division of historical Armenia into Western and Eastern Armenia, Byzantium and Iran Artsakh remained part of Armenia for some time. In 428 the Armenian kingdom was abolished, And Artsakh's territory was included by Persians into the neighboring Albanian kingdom and existed as such until 469 when the Albanian kingdom was abolished as well.
Further Artsakh was part of the Persian Marzpanate (province), named Aran. Armenians managed to achieve a virtually independent position under the princely family of Aranshahiks at the end of V century.
Starting from this period, this region was also known as Alvan, Khachen, Minor Syunik or Khams.
Armenian self-government — complete or partial — continued until the beginning of the 19th century.
In 387, after the division of historical Armenia into Western and Eastern Armenia, Byzantium and Iran Artsakh remained part of Armenia for some time. In 428 the Armenian kingdom was abolished, And Artsakh's territory was included by Persians into the neighboring Albanian kingdom and existed as such until 469 when the Albanian kingdom was abolished as well.
Further Artsakh was part of the Persian Marzpanate (province), named Aran. Armenians managed to achieve a virtually independent position under the princely family of Aranshahiks at the end of V century.
Starting from this period, this region was also known as Alvan, Khachen, Minor Syunik or Khams.
Armenian self-government — complete or partial — continued until the beginning of the 19th century.
Mesrop Mashtots is the founder of Armenian literature and writing
The cultural significance of Artsakh is emphasized by the fact that the monastery of Amaras is located here, where the creator of the Armenian alphabet Mesrop Mashtots founded the first writing school in Armenia.
In topographic, geological and natural aspects Artsakh represented a unified geographic whole, contributing to the development of the full life of this region. Thus, despite the fact that Artsakh was structurally divided into a number of small mountainous provinces, it nevertheless constituted certain integrity from the economic, ethnographic and linguistic points of view.
Conclusion: Artsakh has had an important regional significance since the earliest times of world history.
Where did the toponym "Karabakh" come from?
The name "Karabakh" first appears in historical sources in the XIV century Georgian chronicle "Kartlis tskhovreba" (literally "Life of Georgians") and in the geographical work Nuskhat al-kulub ("The Pleasure of Hearts", 1340) of the Persian historian Hamdallah Qazvini.
Its etymology is based on Iranian geographical nomenclature: in contrast to the plain part, called Bag-i Safid (White Garden), the mountainous part of the region was called Bag-i Siah (Black Garden), which in the Turkic language interpretation turned into Karabakh - from the Turkic "kara" - black, and Persian "bakh" — garden.
The name "Karabakh" first appears in historical sources in the XIV century Georgian chronicle "Kartlis tskhovreba" (literally "Life of Georgians") and in the geographical work Nuskhat al-kulub ("The Pleasure of Hearts", 1340) of the Persian historian Hamdallah Qazvini.
Its etymology is based on Iranian geographical nomenclature: in contrast to the plain part, called Bag-i Safid (White Garden), the mountainous part of the region was called Bag-i Siah (Black Garden), which in the Turkic language interpretation turned into Karabakh - from the Turkic "kara" - black, and Persian "bakh" — garden.
Conclusion: Karabakh is a relatively new term, which is alien to the autochthonous population.
The origins of the conflict
Nadir Shah — ruler of Persia in 1736-1747, military leader
Having fought a fierce war against the Turks, the Armenians of Artsakh valiantly proved themselves, so the new powerful ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, confirmed the authority of the Armenian princes of Artsakh and their system of self-government in a union association called the Melikdom of Khamsa in 1736. Prince Yegan was appointed the general governor of the Melikdom of Khamsa. He was directly subordinated to Nadir Shah's brother Ibrahim Khan, who ruled from Tabriz. It was quite a high level of self-government.
But due to the fateful circumstances that took place after the death of Nadir Shah, the destiny of Artsakh changed in a most dramatic way. Shahnazar the Second, taking advantage of the chaos that arose after the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747, killed his elder brother Melik Hovsep and his whole family and proclaimed himself prince of Varanda.
Such an act aroused the anger of other princes, and the latter organized a campaign to kill Prince Shakhnazar. Realizing that he himself was unable to wage war against other princes, Shakhnazar in despair appealed for help to Panah Khan, the head of the Turkic tribe of Jevanshirs that lived nearby. Subsequently, Shahnazar gave his daughter in marriage to Panah Khan's son and allowed them to settle in the heart of Artsakh, in the fortress of Shushi. He also helped Panah Khan financially for many years, such was the price of saving his life.
But due to the fateful circumstances that took place after the death of Nadir Shah, the destiny of Artsakh changed in a most dramatic way. Shahnazar the Second, taking advantage of the chaos that arose after the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747, killed his elder brother Melik Hovsep and his whole family and proclaimed himself prince of Varanda.
Such an act aroused the anger of other princes, and the latter organized a campaign to kill Prince Shakhnazar. Realizing that he himself was unable to wage war against other princes, Shakhnazar in despair appealed for help to Panah Khan, the head of the Turkic tribe of Jevanshirs that lived nearby. Subsequently, Shahnazar gave his daughter in marriage to Panah Khan's son and allowed them to settle in the heart of Artsakh, in the fortress of Shushi. He also helped Panah Khan financially for many years, such was the price of saving his life.
The report of A.V. Suvorov sent from Astrakhan to Prince G.A. Potemkin stated the following:
"This traitor of his fatherland has called Panah khan, the former chief of the ignorant part of the nomadic Mohammedans near the borders of Karabagh, gave him his strong castle Shushikala and became obedient to him with his signag.
"This traitor of his fatherland has called Panah khan, the former chief of the ignorant part of the nomadic Mohammedans near the borders of Karabagh, gave him his strong castle Shushikala and became obedient to him with his signag.
Panah Khan understood that luck alone was not enough and the hostile region had to be diluted with kindred tribes and co-religionists. To this end, by promising various privileges, the Khan invited Turkic nomadic tribes from neighboring regions.
The struggle of the local Armenian population with Panah Khan and his son Ibrahim Khan continued for many years. This conflict continued until 1813, until the lands of Artsakh were included in Russia, and in 1822 the Karabakh Khanate was abolished.
The struggle of the local Armenian population with Panah Khan and his son Ibrahim Khan continued for many years. This conflict continued until 1813, until the lands of Artsakh were included in Russia, and in 1822 the Karabakh Khanate was abolished.
Conclusion: The struggle of the people of Artsakh is the struggle of the autochthonous Christian people with the nomadic tribes that came over.
The outbreak of the conflict
On March 23, 1920 there was a massacre of Armenian population in Shushi town in Karabakh. Armenian quarters were ravaged and burned, one of the most important cities in the Caucasus lost its importance and could no longer regain it — not during the Soviet years and not later.
After the overthrow of the monarchy in Russia, the turmoil began, and Russia's influence in the southern Caucasus weakened sharply. Since 1918, in the mountainous regions of Syunik (Zangezur) and Artsakh (Karabakh) disagreements over the administrative definition of the regions began. The newly formed Azerbaijani Democratic Republic declared the territories as an integral part of Azerbaijan.
At the same time, the local Armenian population did not consider this division legitimate and opposed it, forming the Armenian National Council. Since 1918 the fate of Artsakh was uncertain and the tension was growing. All this led to tragic pogroms and massacres of the Christian population in Shushi.
At the same time, the local Armenian population did not consider this division legitimate and opposed it, forming the Armenian National Council. Since 1918 the fate of Artsakh was uncertain and the tension was growing. All this led to tragic pogroms and massacres of the Christian population in Shushi.
Reminiscences of the Soviet writer and poetess Marietta Shahinian about Shushi in the second half of the 1920s:
"I was stunned by the silence. I had never felt such a terrible, artificial silence. Suddenly the silence seems to mumble, the stones whisper, move and pounce, and make my hair stand on end.
In March 1920 in three days 7000 houses were destroyed and burned here, according to some people 3-4 thousand Armenians were slaughtered and according to others more than 12 thousand. The fact is that none of the 35 thousand Armenians remained in Shusha. Somewhere in the stream you can still see women's hair covered in black blood. It's hard for a person with a good imagination to breathe here. You walk, you walk, you walk through rows of charred buildings, or rather pieces of walls, you hurry, fearing that you will never get out of here".
"I was stunned by the silence. I had never felt such a terrible, artificial silence. Suddenly the silence seems to mumble, the stones whisper, move and pounce, and make my hair stand on end.
In March 1920 in three days 7000 houses were destroyed and burned here, according to some people 3-4 thousand Armenians were slaughtered and according to others more than 12 thousand. The fact is that none of the 35 thousand Armenians remained in Shusha. Somewhere in the stream you can still see women's hair covered in black blood. It's hard for a person with a good imagination to breathe here. You walk, you walk, you walk through rows of charred buildings, or rather pieces of walls, you hurry, fearing that you will never get out of here".
Modern Azerbaijani historian Arif Yusuf justifies the massacre of civilians in Shushi, describing the reasons as follows:
"While Armenian troops were massing in Zangezur, the Dashnaks launched an extensive propaganda campaign in Karabakh. Meanwhile, the situation in Azerbaijan was extremely difficult, as the troops of Soviet Russia in January 1920 approached the border of Azerbaijan. And in such a situation, on the night of March 23, 1920, when Muslims celebrated their New Year (Novruz), Armenians suddenly attacked Azerbaijanis in Shusha and other settlements of Karabakh. This attack and the attack by Armenian units forced the Azerbaijani government to throw almost all of its armed forces into Karabakh".
"While Armenian troops were massing in Zangezur, the Dashnaks launched an extensive propaganda campaign in Karabakh. Meanwhile, the situation in Azerbaijan was extremely difficult, as the troops of Soviet Russia in January 1920 approached the border of Azerbaijan. And in such a situation, on the night of March 23, 1920, when Muslims celebrated their New Year (Novruz), Armenians suddenly attacked Azerbaijanis in Shusha and other settlements of Karabakh. This attack and the attack by Armenian units forced the Azerbaijani government to throw almost all of its armed forces into Karabakh".
Conclusions: All attempts by the newly formed Azerbaijan to incorporate the region into its own territory, without any historical or international legal basis, were inclined to resolve the issue by force, which resulted in ethnic cleansing.
The Soviet Era: Creation of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast
No sooner had Artsakh recovered from such a blow than the communists came to the South Caucasus. The Sovietization of the territories of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan and, later, the Republic of Armenia and the disputed territory of Artsakh began.
From the letters of the Karabakh District RevCom of Asad Garayev to the Gerusi District RevCom:
July 19, 1920
"Your old policy was deeply mistaken: i.e., the occupation of Karabakh and Zangezur by troops. We know that our troops have been defeated and retreated, but today our money is doing wonders instead of troops. Again and again I repeat my advice - don't spare any amount, increase salaries, give bonuses and all the things they want. The government decided to allocate 200 million rubles for annexing Karabakh and Zangezur to Azerbaijan".
July 21, 1920
"Still 90% of the Zangezur villages have not yet been disarmed.
This is sad. But even more unfortunate is the fact that the Armenians of Zangezur have not yet been beheaded. Its intellectuals and military chiefs still remain in the villages. Make sure that all prominent and necessary Armenians are arrested. Leave humanity behind. You cannot create a state, conquer countries with it... In the famous places rich in warriors, in order to weaken Armenians, kill one Russian soldier and blame it on Armenians. Do you know what the Russians will do to them? Do not leave any decent person or wealth in Zangezur, so that this cursed tribe (Armenians) could no longer rise on their feet".
July 19, 1920
"Your old policy was deeply mistaken: i.e., the occupation of Karabakh and Zangezur by troops. We know that our troops have been defeated and retreated, but today our money is doing wonders instead of troops. Again and again I repeat my advice - don't spare any amount, increase salaries, give bonuses and all the things they want. The government decided to allocate 200 million rubles for annexing Karabakh and Zangezur to Azerbaijan".
July 21, 1920
"Still 90% of the Zangezur villages have not yet been disarmed.
This is sad. But even more unfortunate is the fact that the Armenians of Zangezur have not yet been beheaded. Its intellectuals and military chiefs still remain in the villages. Make sure that all prominent and necessary Armenians are arrested. Leave humanity behind. You cannot create a state, conquer countries with it... In the famous places rich in warriors, in order to weaken Armenians, kill one Russian soldier and blame it on Armenians. Do you know what the Russians will do to them? Do not leave any decent person or wealth in Zangezur, so that this cursed tribe (Armenians) could no longer rise on their feet".
During the Sovietization era, Karabakh's situation remained in limbo for some time, and Armenia and Azerbaijan continued to claim control over the territory. The issue was finally resolved at the plenum of the Caucasian Bureau on July 4, 1921, which decided to incorporate Karabakh into the Armenian Soviet Republic.
But the very next day with Stalin's signature and under the pressure of the Azerbaijani leader Narimanov, another decision was made — this time without discussion or voting — to include Karabakh in the status of an autonomous region within Soviet Azerbaijan.
But the very next day with Stalin's signature and under the pressure of the Azerbaijani leader Narimanov, another decision was made — this time without discussion or voting — to include Karabakh in the status of an autonomous region within Soviet Azerbaijan.
Nariman Narimanov, Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Azerbaijan SSR and Joseph Stalin
The borders were also determined at Baku's discretion, resulting in a border that completely cut Artsakh off from Soviet Armenia and turned it into an enclave within Azerbaijan, with a number of Armenian-populated Karabakh territories not included in the NKAO.
One of the main Soviet figures of that era, Sergo Ordzhonikidze, shortly before his death, spoke about his impressions after the Communists' arrival in Karabakh:
"I still remember with horror the picture we saw in Shusha in May 1920. The most beautiful Armenian city was destroyed, ruined and razed to the ground. and in the wells we saw the corpses of women and children".
"I still remember with horror the picture we saw in Shusha in May 1920. The most beautiful Armenian city was destroyed, ruined and razed to the ground. and in the wells we saw the corpses of women and children".
Conclusion: Sovietized Azerbaijan continued the nationalist policy towards Karabakh and carried it through to the end, while reducing the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh and making it an enclave, thereby securing itself for the future.
The collapse of the USSR and the formation of two countries on the territory of Soviet Azerbaijan
The provision on the right of the Union Republics to secede from the USSR was an important legal component included in the Constitution of the USSR. In this context, the latter Constitution, adopted on 7 October 1977, is no exception.
According to Article 3 of Law No. 1409-I
"In a Union Republic with autonomous republics, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, a referendum shall be held separately for each autonomy. The peoples of autonomous republics and autonomous formations shall retain the right to independently decide the question of staying in the Soviet Union or in the seceding Union republic, as well as to raise the question of their state-legal status. In a Union Republic, in the territory of which there are places of compact residence of national groups that make up the majority of the population of a given locality, the results of voting in these localities are taken into account separately when determining the results of the referendum".
"In a Union Republic with autonomous republics, autonomous regions and autonomous districts, a referendum shall be held separately for each autonomy. The peoples of autonomous republics and autonomous formations shall retain the right to independently decide the question of staying in the Soviet Union or in the seceding Union republic, as well as to raise the question of their state-legal status. In a Union Republic, in the territory of which there are places of compact residence of national groups that make up the majority of the population of a given locality, the results of voting in these localities are taken into account separately when determining the results of the referendum".
It was this article that served as a basis for further decisions on the proclamation of Artsakh's independence on September 2, 1991 and on the referendum on December 10, 1991.
Note that the referendum was held under constant shelling of Armenian settlements with various types of weapons, which did not prevent citizens from taking part in it. It should also be emphasized that the Azerbaijanis did not participate in the referendum, but considering that Armenians were the majority of the NKR population (over 75%), it becomes clear, that their non-participation in any case could not affect the results of the referendum.
Note that the referendum was held under constant shelling of Armenian settlements with various types of weapons, which did not prevent citizens from taking part in it. It should also be emphasized that the Azerbaijanis did not participate in the referendum, but considering that Armenians were the majority of the NKR population (over 75%), it becomes clear, that their non-participation in any case could not affect the results of the referendum.
Conclusions: Thus, we can confidently assert that the people of Artsakh exercised their right to self-determination in strict compliance with the then USSR Constitution and international law.
The people of Artsakh at a rally in 1988 demanding to join Armenia
The оperation "Ring" for the deportation of the indigenous population as a cause of war
In April-August 1991, special police detachments of the Azerbaijani Interior Ministry, together with units of the internal troops of the USSR Interior Ministry
and the 4th Army initiated a large-scale military-police operation "Ring" to forcibly evict the residents from the Armenian settlements of Artsakh.
The decisions to deport residents of a number of Armenian-populated villages in the NKAO and adjoining districts were taken by the leadership of the Azerbaijani SSR in April 1991. The leadership of the deportation operations was assigned to Azerbaijani Minister of Internal Affairs M. Asadov.
It should be added that the Azerbaijani leadership considered the "Ring" operation as the beginning of a large-scale deportation of the remaining Armenian population of Nagorno Karabakh. And on April 30 for the first time tanks, combat helicopters and artillery were used against the peaceful population of Artsakh, and the first targets were the villages of Getashen and Martunashen.
and the 4th Army initiated a large-scale military-police operation "Ring" to forcibly evict the residents from the Armenian settlements of Artsakh.
The decisions to deport residents of a number of Armenian-populated villages in the NKAO and adjoining districts were taken by the leadership of the Azerbaijani SSR in April 1991. The leadership of the deportation operations was assigned to Azerbaijani Minister of Internal Affairs M. Asadov.
It should be added that the Azerbaijani leadership considered the "Ring" operation as the beginning of a large-scale deportation of the remaining Armenian population of Nagorno Karabakh. And on April 30 for the first time tanks, combat helicopters and artillery were used against the peaceful population of Artsakh, and the first targets were the villages of Getashen and Martunashen.
Soviet Military in Artsakh in 1991
The Armenian villages were surrounded one by one by the internal troops of the USSR Interior Ministry and the Soviet Army. Then, ostensibly for the purpose of "checking the passport regime", the Azerbaijani OMON and police entered those villages. In reality, the goal was not to check anything, but the subsequent deportation of the population.
As a result of the operation more than two dozen Armenian villages of the historical Northern Artsakh, as well as Shahumyan, Hadrut and Shushi districts were completely deserted and destroyed, almost ten thousand people were displaced, more than 100 were killed, several hundred people were taken as hostages. The fate of many of them is still unknown.
As a result of the operation more than two dozen Armenian villages of the historical Northern Artsakh, as well as Shahumyan, Hadrut and Shushi districts were completely deserted and destroyed, almost ten thousand people were displaced, more than 100 were killed, several hundred people were taken as hostages. The fate of many of them is still unknown.
Conclusions: In response to the use of violence and deportation of the population, the indigenous Armenian population decided to defend themselves. Thus the war began.
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The way Azerbaijan is trying to erase Armenian history
Stages, methods and examples of the destruction of Christian monuments
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